Leffingwell & Associates
Carotenoids - Lycopene
Home
Our Products
Download Demos
F&F Companies
F&F Info
F&F Top Ten
Chemoreception
Chirality & Odour
Menthol Info
F&F Patents
F&F Reviews
Perfume Info
Aromatherapy
Food Science
Herbs/Botanical
Molecular Modeling


Alchemist WebPick Awarded by the webzine of ChemWeb.com
LYCOPENE - The Ultimate Phytochemical Nutraceutical?
by John C. Leffingwell, Ph.D.
 

 

Lycopene, a carotenoid found in tomato products, prevents oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and reduces the risk of developing atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease according to a recent study published in the October 1998 issue of Lipids (Agarwal, S., and Rao A.V.; Tomato lycopene and low-density lipoprotein oxidation: a human dietary intervention study. Lipids, 33, 981-984 (1998). This study showed that daily consumption of tomato products providing at least 40 mg of lycopene was enough to substantially reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation. High LDL oxidation is associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. This lycopene level can be achieved by drinking just two glasses of tomato juice a day. Research shows that lycopene in tomatoes can be absorbed more efficiently by the body if processed into tomato juice, sauce, paste and ketchup. The bound chemical form of lycopene found in tomatoes is converted by the temperature changes involved in processing to make it more easily absorbed by the body. Ongoing research suggests that lycopene can reduce the risk of prostate cancer and cancers of the lung, bladder, cervix and skin.

Recent Lycopene Studies

At the American Association for Cancer Research meeting held April 12, 1999 in Philadelphia, Dr. Omar Kucuk of Karmanos Cancer Institute in Detroit reported a study involving 33 men who were randomly assigned to take lycopene or nothing for 30 days before their prostate operations. Before surgery, the volunteers showed no obvious signs that their cancer had spread. After surgery, the doctors found that cancer tissue was less likely to extend clear to the edges of the lycopene users' prostate glands. And pre-cancerous cells in their prostates were less abnormal-looking.

Kucuk warned that his study is small, and cautioned against routine use of lycopene supplements without further evidence.

One of the most influential pieces of research on tomatoes and cancer was a large Harvard study released in 1995. It followed the eating habits of 47,000 men for six years. Those who had at least 10 weekly servings of tomato-based foods were up to 45 percent less likely to develop prostate cancer. In an analysis published (J Natl Cancer Inst 1999 Feb 17;91(4):317-31 ), Edward Giovannucci of Harvard Medical School reviewed 72 studies that looked for a link between cancer risk and food made with tomatoes. In all, 57 linked tomato intake with a reduced risk, and in 35 of these, the association was strong enough to be considered statistically meaningful.

Furthermore, Riso and co-workers at the University of Milan in Italy have concluded that the consumption of tomato products may reduce the susceptibility of lymphocyte DNA to oxidative damage (Am J Clin Nutr 1999 Apr;69(4):712-8 ).

Suganuma and Inakuma of the Research Institute, Kagome Co. Ltd., Tochigi, Japan studied the effects of dietary ingestion of tomato in mice that had been made hypercholesterolemic. The results indicate that tomato has a preventive effect on atherosclerosis by protecting plasma lipids from oxidation (Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1999 Jan;63(1):78-82 ).

 

In contrast to the rather "extended" claims made for many nutriceutical and herbal products, it appears that lycopene is certainly a truly phenomenal material. And one that is available to anyone that wants it - and for a price that is affordable to nearly everyone. In fact, the table below as summarized by Nguyen and Schwartz [in Lyopene: Chemical and biological properties. Food Technol., 53(2): 38- 45 (1999)] shows that just drinking 3 8-oz glasses of a processed vegetable juice such as V-8(R) will provide in excess of the 40 mg per day of lycopene suggested for reducing LDL cholesterol.

 

Amount

Amount

Food

Food Form

(mg/100g)

mg per serving

Serving Size

Apricots

Fresh

0.005

0.007

140 g

Apricots

Canned, drained

0.065

0.091

140 g

Apricots

Dried

0.86

0.34

40 g

Chili

Processed

1.08-2.62

1.40-3.41

130 g

Grapefruit

Pink, fresh

3.36

4.70

140g

Guava

Pink, fresh

5.40

7.56

140 g

Guava juice

Pink, processed

3.34

8.35

240 ml - 250 g

Ketchup

Processed

16.60

3.32

1 tbsp. - 20 g

Papaya

Red, fresh

2.00-5.30

2.8-7.42

1409.00

Pizza sauce

Canned

12.71

15.89

125 g

Pizza sauce

From pizza

32.89

9.867

slice - 30 g

Rosehip puree

Canned

0.78

0.47

60 g

Salsa

Processed

9.28

3.71

2 tbsp. - 40 g

Spaghetti sauce

Processed

17.50

21.88

125 g

Tomatoes

Red, fresh

3.1-7.74

4.03-10.06

130 g

Tomatoes

Whole, peeled, processed

11.21

14,01

125 g

Tomato juice

Processed

7.83

19,58

240 mL - 250 g

Tomato soup

Canned, condensed

3.99

9.77

245 g

Tomato paste

Canned

30.07

9.02

30 g

Watermelon

Red, fresh

4.10

11.48

280 g

Vegetable juice

Processed

7.28

17.47

240 mL - 250 g

For additional information on Lycopene click the image below to go to this web site.

Lycopene & Related References

Year

Reference

1998

Agarwal, S., and Rao A.V.; Tomato lycopene and low-density lipoprotein oxidation: a human dietary intervention study. Lipids, 33, 981-984 (1998).

1993

Batieha, A.M,, Armenian, H.K., Norkus, E.P., Morris, J.,S., Spate, V.E., and Comstock, G.W. Serum micron-utrients and subsequent risk of cervical cancer in a population -based nested case-control study. Cancer Epiderniol. Biomarkers Prev, 2: 335-339 (1993.).

1998

Belakbir, A., Ruiz, J.M., and Romero, L.; Yield and fruit quality of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) in response to bioregulators. HortScience. 33(l): 85-87 (1998).

1969

Ben-Shaul, Y. and Naftali, Y.; The development and ultrastructure of lycopene bodies in chromoplasts of Lycopersicum esculentum. Protoplasma 67: 333-344 (1969)

1985

Bien, J.G., Brown, E.D., and Smith, J.C.; Determination of individual carotenoids in human plasma by high performance liquid chromatography. J. Liq. Chromatog. 8: 473-484 (1985).

1974

Bjelke, F.; Case-control study in Norway, Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 9: 42-49 (1974).

1992

Block, G., Patterson, B., and Subar, A.; Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: A review of the epidemi-ological evidence. Nutr. Cancer 18: 1-29 (1992).

1979

Boskovic, M.A.; 1979. Fate of lycopene in dehydrated tomato products: Carotenoid isomerization in food systems. J. Food Sci. 44: 84-86 (1979).

1996

Brady, W.E., Mares-Perlman, J.A., Bowen, R. and Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, M.; Human serum carotenoid concentrations are related to physiologic and lifestyle factors. J. Nutr. 1 26(l): 129-137 (1996).

1995

Britton, G.; "Carotenoids: Spectroscopy," 1B: pp, 57. Birkhauser Verlag, Boston, (1995).

1985

Bushway, R.J.; Separation of carotenoids in fruits and vegetables by high performance liquid chromatography. J. Liq. Chromatog, 8: 1527-1547 (1985).

1996

Cano, M, P., Ancos, B., Lobo, G., Monreal, M., and De-Ancos, B.; Effects of freezing and canning of papaya slices on their carotenoid composition. Z. Lebensmittel Unters. Forsch. 202(4): 279-284 (1996).

1988

Chandler, L.A. and Schwartz, S.J.; Isomerization and losses of trans-beta-carotene in sweet potatoes as affected by processing treatments. J. Agric Food Chem. 36:129-133 (1988).

1996

Choo, YM., Yap, S.C., Ooi, C.X., Ma, A.X., Goh, S.H., and Ong, S.H.; Recovered oil from palm-pressed fiber: A good source of natural carotenoids, vitamin E, and sterols. JAOCS 73: 599-602 (1996).

1996

Clinton, S.K., Emenhiser, C., Schwartz, S.J., Bostwick, D.G., Williams, A.W., Moore, B.J., and Erdman, J.W.; Cis-trans lycopene isomers, carotenoids, and retinol in the human prostate. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 5: 823-833 (1996).

1998

Clinton, S.K.; Lycopene: Chemistry. biology, and implications for human health and disease. Nutr. Rev. 56(2): 35-51 (1998).

1985

Colditz, G.A., Branch, L,G., and Lipnick, R.J.; Increased green and yellow vegetable intake and lowered cancer deaths in an elderly population. Am. Clin. Nutr. 41: 32-36 (1985).

1957

Cole, E.R. and Kapur, N.S. ; The stability of lycopene. II. Oxidation during heating of tomato pulps. J. Sci. Food Agric. 8: 366-368 (1957).

1957

Cole, E.R., and Kapur, N.S.; The stability of lycopene. I. Degradation by oxygen. J. Sci. Food Agric. 8: 360-365 (1957).

1979

Cook-Mozaffari, P.J., Azordegan, F., and Day, N.E.; Oseophageal cancer studies in the Caspian Litoral of Iran: Results of a case-control study. Brit. J. Cancer 39: 292-309 (1979).

1991

Countryman, C., Bankson, D., Collins, S., Man, B., and Lin, W.; Lycopene inhibits the growth of the HL-60 promyelocylic leukemia cell line. Clin. Chem. 37:1056 (1991).

1992

Craft, N.E.; Carotenoid reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography methods: Reference compendium. Meth. Enzymol. 213: 185-205 (1992).

1992

Crouzet, J., and Kanasawud, P.; . Formation of volatile compounds by thermal degradation of carotenoids. Meth. Enzymol. 213: 54-62 (1992).

1976

Davies, B.H.; Carotenoids, In "Chemistry and Biochemistry of Plant Pigments," Vol. 2, 2nd ed., ed. T.W. Goodwin, pp. 38-165. Academic Press, New York (1976).

1989

Di Mascio, P., Kaiser, S., and Sies, H.; Lycopene as the most efficient biological carotenoid singlet oxygen quencher. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 274: 532-538 (1989).

1997

Diaz, M.N., Frei, B., Vita, J.A., and Keaney, J.F.; Antioxidants and atherosclerotic heart disease. New Eng. J. Med. 337: 408-416 (1997)..

1913

Duggar, B.M.; Lycopersicon: The red pigment of the tomato and the effects of conditions on its development. Washington Univ. Stud., 1: 22-45 (1913).

1998

Duke, J.A. and Beckstrom-Stemberg, S.M.; Plants containing lycopene. Phytochemical database. USDA NCI Carotencid Food Composition Database. Agric. Res, Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md. (1998).

1992

Duke, J.A.; "Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and Other Economic Plants." CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.(1992).

1995

Emenhiser, C., Sander, L.C., and Schwartz, S J.; Capabilitry of a polymeric C30 stationary phase to resolve cis-trans carotenoid isomers in reversed-phase liquid chromatography J. Chromatog A 707: 205 216 (1995).

1996

Emenhiser, C., Simunovic, N, Sander, L. C., and Schwartz, S.J.; Separation of geometric isomers in biological extracts using a polymeric C 30 column in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44: 3887-3893 (1996).

1992

Epler, K,S., Sander, L.G, Ziegler, R.G., Wise, S.A., and Craft, N.E.; Evaluation of reversed-phase liquid chromatographic columns for recovery and selectivity of selected carotenoids. J. Chromatog. 595: 89-101 (1992).

1998

Ferruzzi, M.G., Sander, L.C., Rock, C.L., and Schwartz. S J.; Carotenoid determination in biological microsamples using liquid chromatography with a coulometric electrochemical array detector. Anal. Biochem. 256: 74-81 (1998).

1993

Forman. M.R., et.al.; The correlation between two dietary assessments of carotenoid intake and plasma Garotenoid concentrations: Application of a carotenoid food composition database. Am. J. Clin, Nutr 58: 519-24 (1993).

1994

Franceschi, S., Bidoli, E., La Vecchia, G., Talamini, R., D'Avanzo, B., and Negri, E.; Tomatoes and risk of digestive-tract cancers. Intl. J. Cancer 59(2): 181-184 ( 1994).

1997

Gartner, C., Stahl, W, and Sies, H.; Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66: 116-122 (1997).

1997

Gester, H.; The potential role of lycopene for human health. J. Am. Col. Nutr. 16(2): 109-126 (1997).

1995

Giovannucci, E. L., Ascherio, A., Rimm, E. B., Stampfer, M.J., Colditz, G.A., and Willett, W.C.; Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relationship to risk of prostate cancer. J. NatI. Cancer Inst. 87: 1767-1776 (1995).

1987

Godoy, H.T. and Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B.; Changes in individual carotenoids on processing and storage of mango (Mangifera indica) slices and puree. Intl. J. Food Sci. Technol. 22: 451-460 (1987)..

1991

Gross, J.; "Pigments in Vegetables: Chlorophylls and Carotenoids. pp. 148-249. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1991).

1996

Ha, T.K.K., Saffar, N., Talwar, D., Cooney, J., Simpson, K., O'-Reilly D., and Lean, M.E.J.; Abnormal antioxidant vitamin and carotenoid status in chronic renal failure. Q.J.M. 89: 765-769 (1996).

1983

Harborne, J.B. and Baxter, H.; "Phytochemical Dictionary. A Handbook of Bioactive Compounds from Plants," Taylor & Frost, London (1983).

1873

Hartsen; Chem. Centr. 204 (1873).

1998

Henry, L,K., Catignani, G.L., and Schwartz, S.J.; Oxidative degradation kinetics of lycopene. lutein, 9-cis and all-trans beta-carotene. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 75: 823-829 (1998).

1997

Jarvinen, R,, Knekt, P., Seppanen, R., and Teppo, L.; Diet and breast cancer risk in a cohort of Finnish women. Cancer Lett. 114: 251-253 (1997).

1959

Joyce, E.; Carotenoids of Brassica napus. J. Sci. Food Agric. 10: 342-348 ( 1959).

1954

Joyce, E.; Some polyenes of Brassica rutabaga. Nature, 173: 311-312 (1954).

1990

Kaplan, L.A., Lau, J.M., and Stein, E.A.; Carotenoid composition, concentrations, and relationships in various human organs. Clin. Physiol. Biochem, 8: 1-10 (1990).

1930

Karrer, P, Helfenstein, A., Wehri, H., and Wettstein, A.; Pflanzenfarbstoffe. XXV. Leber die Konstitution des Lycopins und Carotins, Acta 14: 154-162 (1930).

1995

Khachik, F, Beecher, G.R., and Smith, J.C. Jr.; Lutein, lycopene, and their oxidative metabolites in chemoprevention of cancer J. Cell Biochem, Suppl. 22: 236-246 (1995.)

1992

Khachik, F., et.al.; Effect of food preparation on qualitative and quantitative distribution of major carotenoid constituents of tomatoes and several green vegetables, J. Agric. Food Chem, 40: 390-398 (1992).

1992

Khachilk, F., Beecher, G.R., Lusby, W.R., and Smith, Separation and identification of carotenoids and their oxidation products in the extracts of human plasma. Anal. Chem 64: 2111 -2122 (1992).

1995

Kim, H.; Carotenoids protect cultured rat hepatocytes from injury caused by carbon tetrachloride. Intl. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 27: 1303-1309 (1995).

1990

Kimura, M., Roddguez-Amaya, D.B., and Godoy, H.T.; Assessment of the saponification step in the quantitative determination of carotenoids and provitamins A. Food Chem. 35: 187-195 (1990).

1978

Kirk, J.TO, and Tilney-Basset. R.A.E. "The Plastids. Their Chemistry, Structure, Growth, and Inheritance," 2nd ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1978).

1997

Kohlmeier, L., et.al., Ed.; Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 146: 618-626 (1997).

1990

Krinsky, N.I., Russett, M.D., Handelman, G.J., and Snodderly, D.M.; Structural and geometrical isomers of carotenoids in human plasma. J. Nutr. 120: 1654-1662 (1990).

1932

Kuhn, R. and Grundmann, C.; Die konstitution des Lycopins. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 65: 1880-1889 (1932).

1986

Landers, G.M. and Olson, J.A.; Absence of isomerization of retinyl palmitate, retinal, and retinal in chlorinated and unchlorinated solvents under gold light. J. Assn. Offic. Anal. Chem. 69: 50-55 (1986).

1974

Laval-Martin, D.; La maturation do fruit de tomate "cerise": Mise en evidence, par cryodecapage de l'evolution des chloroplastes en duex types de chromoplastes. Protoplasma 82: 33-59 (1974).

1997

Lessin, W.J., Catigani, G.L., and Schwartz, S.J.; Quantification of cis-trans isomers of provitamin A carotenoids in fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45: 3728-3732 (1997).

1995

Levy, J., Bosh, E., Feldman, B., Giat, Y, Munster, A., Danilenko, M., and Sharoni, Y.; Lycopene is a more potent inhibitor of human cancer cell proliferation than either alpha-carotene or beta-carotene. Nutr. Cancer. 24: 257-266 (1995).

1979

List, P.H. and Horhammer, L.; "Hager's Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis," Vols. 2-6. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1979).

1993

Mangels. A.R., Holden, J.M., Beecher, G.R., Forman, M., and Lanza, E.; Carotenod content of fruits and vegetables: An evaluation of analytical data. J. Am. Dietetic Assn. 93: 284-296 (1993).

1995

Matsushima-Nishiwaki, R., Shidoji, Y., Nishiwaki, S., Yamada, T., Modwaki, H., and Muto, Y.; Suppression by carotenoids of microcystin-induced morphological changes in mouse hepatocytes. Lipids. 30: 1029-1034 (1995).

1875

Millardet; Bull. Soc. Sci. Nancy 2(1): 21 (1875).

1996

Mitamura, T, Tsunoda, S., and Nagasawa, H.; Lycopene, a carotenoid, suppresses TGFalpha mRNA expression in spontaneous mammary tumours of SHN mice. Bull. Faculty of Agric, Meiji Univ. 108: 45-48 (1996).

1979

Mohr, W. P.; Pigment bodies in fruits of crimson and high pigment lines of tomatoes. Ann. Bot. 44: 427-434 (1979).

1954

Monselise, J. J. and Berk, Z.; Oxidative destruction of lycopene during the manufacturing of tomato puree. Bull. Res. Council Isr. 4: 188-191 (1954).

1976

Moss, G.P. and Weedon B.C.L.; Chemistry of the carotenoids. In "Chemistry and Biochemistry of Plant Pigments," Vol. 1, 2nd ed., ed T.W. Goodwin, pp. 149-224. Academic Press, Nevv York (1976).

1997

Muller, H.; Determination of the carotenod content in selected vegetables and fruit by HPLC and photodiode array detection. Z. Lebensmitlel Unters. Forsch. 204(2): 88-94 (1997).

1995

Nagasawa, H., Mitamura, T., Sakamoto. S., and Yamamoto, K.; Effects of lycopene on spontaneous mammary tumour development in SHN virgin mice. Anticancer Res. 15: 1173-1178 (1995).

1996

Narisawa, T. et.al.; Inhibitory effects of natural carotenoids, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lycopene and lutein, on colonic aberrant crypt foci formation in rats, Cancer Lett. 107: 137-142 (1996).

1997

Nebeling, L.C., Forman, M.R., Graubard, B.I., and Snyder, B.A.; Changes in carotenoid intake in the United States: The 1987 and 1992 National Health Interview Surveys. J, Am. Dietetic Assn. 9: 991-996 (1997).

1998

Nguyen, M.L. and Schwartz, S.J.; Effects of industrial thermal treatments on carotenoid geometrical isomers in fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Presented at Ann. Mtg., Inst. of Food Technologists, Atlanta, GA, (1998).

1998

Nguyen, M.L. and Schwartz, S.J.; Lycopene stability during food processing, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 218: 101-105 (1998).

1998

Nguyen, M.L. and Schwartz, S.J.; Thermal isomerization of carotenoids in different tomato varieties. Presented at 3rd Worldwide Congress on the Processing Tomato, Pamplona, Spain (1998).

1999

Nguyen, M.L., and Schwartz, S.J.; Lyopene: Chemical and biological properties. Food Technol., 53(2): 38- 45 (1999).

1992

Nierenberg, D.W. and Nann, S.L.; A method for determining concentrations of retinol, tocopherol, and five Carotenoids in human plasma and tissue samples. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 56: 417-426 (1992).

1975

Noble, A.C.; Investigation of the color changes in heat concentrated tomato pulp. J. Agric. Food Chem. 23: 48-49 (1975).

1993

Ojima, F., Sakamoto, H., Ishiguro, Y, and Terao, J.; 1993. Consumption of carotenoids in photosensitized oxidation of human plasma and plasma low-densty lipoprotein, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 15: 377-384 (1993).

1996

Palan, P.R. et.al.; Plasma levels of beta-carotene, lycopene, Canthaxanthin, retinol, and alpha- and tau-tocopherol in cervical intraepthelial neoplasia and cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2(1): 181-185 (1996).

1970

Panalaks, T. and Murray, T.K.; The effect of processing on the content of carotene isomers in vegetables and peaches. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 3: 145-151 (1970).

1988

Parker, R.S, 1988. Carotenoid and tocopherol composition in human adipose tissue. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 47: 33-36 (1988).

1939

Pauling, L.; Recent work on the configuration and electronic structure of molecules with some applications to natural products: Isomerism and the structure of carotenoids. Fortschr. Chem. Org. Naturstoffe. 3: 227-229 (1939).

1992

Peng, Y.S. and Peng, Y.M.; Simultaneous liquid chromatographic determination of carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols in human buccal mucosal cells, Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 1: 375-382 (1992).

1997

Pool-Zobel, B. L., Bub, A., Muller, H., Wollowski, E, and Rechkemmer, G.; Consumption of vegetables reduces genetic damage in humans: First results of a human intervention trial with carotenoid-rich foods. Carcinogenesis 18: 1847-1850 (1997).

1950

Porter, J.W. and Lincoln, R.F.; Arch. Biochem, 27 390 (1950).

1994

Potischman, N, Hoover, R.N., Brinton, L.A., Swanson, C.A., Herrero, R., Tenorio, F., de Britton, R.C, Gartan, E.. and Reeves, W.C.; The relations between cervical cancer and serological markers of nutritional status. Nutr. Cancer 21(3): 193-201 (1994).

1987

Quackenbush, F.W.; Reversed-phase HPLC separation of cis and trans-carotenoids and its application to food materials. J. Liq. Chromat. 10: 643-653 (1987).

1993

Ramon, J.M., Serra, L., Como, C., and Oromi, J.; Dietary factors and gastric cancer risk, Cancer 71. 1731-1735 (1993).

1998

Rao, A.M. and Agarwal, S.; Effect of diet and smoking on serum lycopene and lipid peroxidation. Nutr. Res. 18: 713-721 (1998).

1995

Ribayo-Mercado, J,D., Garmyn, M., Gilchrest, B.A., and Russel, R.M.; Skin lycopene is destroyed preferentially over beta-carotene during ultraviolet irradiation in humans. J. Nutr. 125: 1854-1859 (1995).

1996

Rouseff, R., Raley, L., and Hofsommer, H.J.; Application of diode array detection with a C30 reversed phase column for the separation and identification of saponified orange juice carotenoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44: 2176-2181 (1996).

1987

Sander, L.C. and Wise, S.A.; Effect of phase length on column selectivity for the separation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Ana. Chem. 59: 2309-2313 (1987).

1994

Sander, L.C., Sharpless, K. E., Craft, N. E., and Wise, S.A.; Development of engineered stationary phases for the separation of carotenoid isomers. Anal. Chem. 66:1667-1674 (1994).

1997

Schierle, J., Bretzel, W., Buhler, I., Faccin, N., Hess, D., Steiner, K., and Schuep, W.; Content and isomeric ratio of lycopene in food and human blood plasma. Food Chem. 96: 459-465 (1997).

1991

Schmitz, H.H., Poor, C.L., Wellman, R.B., and Erdman, J.W.; Concentrations of selected carotenoids and vitamin A in human liver, kidney and lung tissue. J. Nutr. 121: 1613-1621 (1991).

1903

Schunck, C.A. 1903. Proc. Royal Soc. London 72: 165 (1903).

1992

Scita, G.; Stability of beta-carotene under different laboratory conditions. Meth. Enzymol. 213: 175-185 (1992).

1996

Scott, K. J. et.al.; The correlation between the intake of lutein, lycopene and beta-carotene from vegetables and fruits, and blood plasma concentrations in a group of women aged 50-65 years in the UK. Brit. Nutr. 75: 409-418 (1996).

1996

Sharma, S.K. and Le Maguer, M.;Kinetics of lycopene degradation in tomato pulp solids under different processing and storage conditions, Food Res. Intl. 29: 309-315 (1996).

1976

Simpson, K.L., Lee, TC., Rodriguez, D.B., and Chichester, C.O.; Metabolism in senescent and stored tissues. In "Chemistry and Biochemistry of Plant Pigments," Vol. 1, 2nd ed., ed. T.W. Goodwin, pp. 779-842. Academic Press, New York (1976).

1996

Snowdon, D.A., Gross, M.D., and Butler, S.M.; Antioxidants and reduced functional capacity in the elderly: Findings from the Nun Study. J. Gerontol. A. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 51 (1): M10-16 (1996).

1996

Stahl, W, and Sies, H.; Lycopene: A biologically important carotenoid for human? Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 336: 1-9 (1996).

1992

Stahl, W. and Sies, H.; Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is greater from heat-processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in humans. J. Nutr. 122: 2161-2166 !992).

1992

Stahl, W., Schwarz, W., Sundquist, A. R,, and Sies, H.; Cis-trans isomers of lycopene and beta-carotene in human serum and tissues. Arch. Biochem. Bicphys. 294(1):173-177 (1992).

1993

Stalhl, W., Sundquist, A.R , Hanusch, M , Schwarz, W., and Sies, H.; Separation of beta-carotene and lycopene geometrical isomers in biological samples. Clin. Chem. 39: 810-814 (1993).

1996

Steinmetz, K.A. and Potter, J. D.; Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: A review. J. Am. Dietet. Assn. 96: 1027-1039 (1996).

1993

Steinmetz, K.A., Porter, J.D., and Folson, A.R.; Vegetables, fruit, and lung cancer in the Iowa Women's Health Study. Cancer Res. 53: 536-543 (1993).

1995

Subar, A.F., Heimendinger, J., Patterson, B.H., Krebs-Smith, S.M , Pivonka, E. and Kessler, R.; Fruit and vegetable intake in the United States: the baseline survey of the Five A Day for Better Health Progiam. Am. J. Health Promot. 9: 352-360 (1995).

1971

Sweeney, J.P. and Marsh, A.C.; Effect of processing on provitamin A in vegetables. J. Am. Dietet. Assn, 59: 238-243 (1971).

1985

Tajima, K. and Tominaga, S.; Dietary habits and gastrointestinal cancers: A comparative case-control study of stomach and large intestinal cancer in Nagoya, Japan. Jap. J. Cancer Res. 76: 705-716 (1985).

1981

Tsukida, K., Saiki, K., Takii, T, and Koyarri Y.; Structural elucidation of the main cis-beta-carotenes, J. Nutr Sci. Vit. 27: 551-561 (1981).

1975

UPAC. Nomenclature of carotenoids. UPAC Commission on the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry and IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature, Pure Appl. Chem. 41: 407-419 ( 1975.).

1998

USDA-NCI Carotenoid Database for U.S Foods. Nutrient Data Lab,, Agric. Res. Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Riverdale, Md. USDA 1998.

1993

van Poppel, G.; Carotenoids and cancer: An update with emphasis on human intervention studies. Eur. J. Cancer 29A: 1335-1344 (1993).

1990

Variyar, P.S. and Bandyopadhyay, C.; On the carotenoids of ripened pepper berries (Piper nigrum L.). J. Food Sci. Technol, 27(5): 294-295 (1990).

1989

Wang, C.J., Chou, M.Y., and Lin, J.K.; Inhibition of growth and development of the transplantable C-6 glioma cells inoculated in rats by retinoids and carotenoids. Cancer Lett. 48(2): 135-142 (1989).

1995

Weedon, B.C.L. and Moss, G.P.; Structure and nomenclature, In "Carotenoids: Spectroscopy," ed. G. Britton, pp. 27-70. Birkhauser Verlag. Boston (1995).

1998

Weisburger, J.H.; Evaluation of the evidence on the role of tomato products in disease prevention. Proc. Soc Exp. Biol. Med. 218: 140-143 (1998).

1995

Wilderg, V.C. and Rodriguez-Amaya D.B.; HPLC quantitation of major carotenoids of fresh and processed guava. mango, and papaya, Lebensmittel Wiss, Technol. 28: 474-480 (1995).

1995

Willett, W.C.; Diet, nutrition and avoidable cancer. Environ. Health Perspect. 103s: 165-170 (1995).

1910

Willstatter, R. and Escher, H.H.Z.; Physiol. Chem. 64: 47 (1910).

1996

Yeum, K.J., Liu, C., Tang. G.W., Booth, S.L., Sadowski, J.A., Krinsky, N.I., and Russell, R.M.; Human plasma carotenoid response to the ingestion of controlled diets high in fruit and vegetables. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 64: 594-602 (1996).

1936

Zechmeister, L. and Cholnolky, L.; Lycoxanthin und Lycophyll, zwei naturliche Derivate des Lycopins. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 69: 422-429 (1936).

1944

Zechmeister, L. and Polgar, A.; Cis-trans isomerization and cis-peak effect in the alpha-carotene set and in some other stereoisomeric sets. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 66 137-144 (1944).

1938

Zechmeister, L. and Tuzson, P.; Isomerization of carotenoids. Biochem. J. 32: 1305-1311 (1938).

1938

Zechmeister, L. and Tuzson, P.; Spontaneous isomerization of lycopene. Nature 141: 249-250 (1938).

1941

Zechmeister, L., LeRosen, A.L., Went, F.W., and Pauling L.; Prolycopene, a naturally occurring stereoisomer of lycopene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 27: 468-474 (1941).

1962

Zechmeister. L.; "Cis-trans Isomeric Carotenoids, Vitamins A and Arylpolyenes, 'Academic Press~ New York (1962).

1943

Zechmester, L., LeRosen, A.L., Schroeder, W.A., Polgar, A., and Pauling, L.; Spectral characteristics and configuration of some stereoisomeric carotenolds including prolycopene and pro-gamma-carotene. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 65: 1940-1951 (1943).

 Back to The Carotenoids Page...... Home .......Back to In the News

Other Subjects on the Leffingwell & Associates Site

The Product Offerings:

Flavor-Base
Juice-Master
Beverage-Master
VCF 2000 - Volatile Compounds in Foods
ESO 2006 - Essential oils
PMP 2001 - Perfumery Materials
PFC - Perfume & Fragrance Classification
FRM 2001 - Flavor Raw Materials
Odour Thresholds

Other Interesting Places:

In the News
Welcome Page
Guest Book

Flavor & Fragrance Links
Herbs & Botanical Links
Food Science Links
Chemoreception Links

Search PubMed

Phytochemical & Ethnobotanical Search Page

 

Aldehydes - GRAS: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
Alkenols: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
Burnt Sugar Notes: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
delta-Lactones - GRAS: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
Esters - GRAS: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
gamma-Lactones - GRAS: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
Pyrazines - GRAS: Odor Properties and Molecular Visualization
Odor Thesholds of GRAS Flavor Chemicals
Olfaction - A Review

Carotenoids- Precursors of Important Fragrance & Flavor Constituents
Boronia - Aromas from Carotenoids
Saffron - Aromas from Carotenoids
Rose - Aromas from Carotenoids
Osmanthus - Aromas from Carotenoids
Tobacco - Aromas from Carotenoids
Lycopene - The Ultimate Phytochemical Nutraceutical?

Smoke Flavor I. -The Flavor of Hardwood Smoke
Smoke Flavor II. - Dark Fire-Cured Tobacco

Telephone: 01-770-8895111 - Email: leffingwell@mindspring.com
Copyright © Leffingwell & Associates
TERMS OF SERVICE.............PRIVACY POLICY